By: Dr. Md. Wasay Zafar
Abstract
Education being one of the highly purposeful activities of human
life has some goals which ultimately contribute in achieving the goals of life
of individuals as well as of the society at large. The goals of life ultimately
depend upon the philosophy of life an individual or a society possesses. In
this paper the researcher has tried to analyse the aims of education prevalent in
the different parts of the world as well as in India at different times since
ancient to the modern age and has established a relationship between education
and philosophy.
Key Words: Aims of
Education, Philosophy of Education, Historical Perspective, Philosophical
Perspective
Education is an important human activity. It was born with the
birth of the human race and shall continue to function as long as the human
race survives. It is an essential human virtue and an important basis of good
life. Only through the attainment of education, man is enabled to receive
information from the external world, to acquaint himself with past history and
to receive all necessary information regarding the present. Without education,
man is as though in a closed room and with education he finds himself in a room
with all its windows open towards outside world. Education teaches what man
lives and struggles for. It cultivates an integrated life and by doing so, it
gives significance to human life. Man becomes 'man' in the real sense through
the process of education. He is what education makes him. He gets the ability to differentiate between right and wrong or good and evil. In reality the training of a human mind is not
complete without education. Education makes man a right thinker. It tells man
how to think and how to make decision and how to work properly. It is one of
the important factors which formulate the persona of a person. It has
been rightly said that without education, man is a splendid slave, reasoning
savage. Through the process of education a man gets freedom from all kinds of bondage and slavery. He becomes not only
self-reliant and self-sufficient but also a productive member of the society as
education gives him the knowledge of putting one's potentials to maximum use.
He knows where improvement is necessary for the greater good of mankind. Education in this way fashions and moulds the
man for the society. Man cannot be conceived merely in terms of his biological
existence. Education brings into focus the social aspect of man. It provides
opportunities to interact with people from different walks of life. It leads to
better understanding and an exposure of how the world lives and thinks. It
makes one aware of the rules and regulations of the society he is living in. It
leads an individual towards social, economic, legal and political empowerment.
It is only then that one can avail his rights as a citizen and seek improvement
in the structural functioning of governance and economy. It's only when a citizen is aware about the policies of its
government can he be able to support or protest the change. It's only through
knowledge that one can be able to question authority for its negligence or
discrepancies. In this manner education signifies
man's supreme position in society. One can also say that ‘education’ and ‘life’ as well as ‘education’ and ‘society’ are inseparable.
This is the reason that each and every society develops a system of
education to shape the development of it young generation. Also, in order to develop a sound system of
education and to make it most fruitful the partakers of education of a society
have to answer certain basic questions like; what should be the ultimate goal
of education, which type of curriculum should be laid down for the fulfilment
of that goal and what should be the method teaching for realizing that goal?
Moreover, in order to modify the behaviour of young learners in a desired
direction and develop their personalities to the fullest extent, they have to
answer some other crucial questions like; how a child should be treated and
which dimension of a child’s personality should be given special emphasis.
‘Which kind of values should be inculcated in the young learners so as to form
their character morally strong?’ is also an important question in this concern.
If one looks upon these questions with philosophical mind it
becomes evident to him that answering them is not an easy task. Take for
example the first question that is regarding the ultimate goal of education.
Before giving answer to this question one has to answer another basic question
i.e. ‘what is the ultimate goal of life or what is the summum bonum of life’ as
education is considered as an instrument of realizing the goals of life. But
this question is further related to so many philosophical questions like; what
is the ultimate reality of this universe? What is ground of all existence? Is
the universe self-evolved or is it created? If it is created then, who created
this universe and what was the purpose of creation. What is the place of man in
this universe? What is the reality of soul and how it is related with the body,
and also, which is more fundamental body or spirit? What is the concept of
life, death and life after death? Does God exist and if He exists, what are the
proofs and what is his nature? How is God related with the universe? What is
His expectation from the human beings? Similarly, question of aims of education
is also related with the problems of value viz. What kind of existence do the
values have? Are there any values which are ultimately real? What is good life?
What are the criterions of good life? etc. Without giving answers of these
questions on cannot determine the aims of education and the nature of the
curriculum to be adopted to realize those aims. The decision about the method
of teaching to be adopted depends upon the nature of the curriculum and also
upon the views about nature, source and criterion of knowledge. Thus every
question of education becomes the question of philosophy. Without the proper
guidance and supervision of philosophy, education cannot be a successful
process of development and achievement. From philosophy, education gets logic,
rationale, sequence and system. An educational programme becomes consistent
only when its foundations are laid on a sound philosophical system.
This relationship of education and philosophy becomes more evident
when one analyzes the history of education in the world perspective. From
ancient to the modern age, the aims of education in different parts of the
world as well as in India at different times bear strong testimony to the fact
that they were determined by the philosophy of life predominant during those
days. They have been varying in different countries in accordance with their
respective philosophies. First of all one can take the example of two states of
ancient Greece; Athens and Sparta. In Athens, the aim of life in the words of
Aristotle was ‘living beautifully and happily’. Therefore the aim of education
was the development of wholesome character and inculcation of qualities which
enable children to lead their lives charmingly, comfortably and delightfully.
The children were given full freedom and ample opportunities to develop
themselves physically, intellectually, morally and aesthetically. To have
beauty of physique, beauty of mind (reason), beauty of character and a sense of
aesthetic appreciation for the objects of beauty and aesthetic expression of
the personality was their main concern.[1] On
the other hand Sparta was a perfect example of a socialistic state and the most
extreme case of governmental control of education. The aim of Spartan Education
was to give each individual such physical perfection, bodily strength, courage,
power of endurance and habits of complete obedience to the laws that he should
make the ideal soldier, unsurpassed in bravery, and one in whom the individual
was sunk in the citizen. The purpose
was to preserve their national existence from the dangers arising from powerful
neighbours, from a vast conquered population, and from internal insurrections.
To achieve this aim, the system of education tried to inculcate in children
virtues of patriotism, courage, self-control, fearlessness, obedience to
command, respectfulness to authorities and a spirit of self-sacrifice at the
call of the state. Weakness of body was condemned as vice and death in the
service of the state was considered as the highest virtue.[2]
In the 19th century the public schools in England
thought that it was their duty to produce the squires and the industrialists,
the politicians and the empire builders who were to take the lead at home and
abroad. The Education Act of 1944 in England laid down the objectives of
education as: “Happier childhood and the better start in life”[3].
Education in England during the 1960s and 1970s fell under the influence of
humanist and child-centred philosophies aiming to cater for the individual’s
diverse needs regardless of ability or social background. Advocates of this
philosophy argued that education should not be only concerned with a child’s
academic performance, but should also cater for his social, emotional and
physical development. A child-centred ethos was strongly manifested in the
Plowden Report (DES 1967) which advocated holistic and rounded education, care
for children’s diverse needs, and individualization.[4]
During the 1980s Education began to reflect governments’ political,
social and economic agendas in England. This period was marked by economic
recession. These factors contributed to the increasing centralization and
standardization of education system which, by the end of the decade, was
described by some critics as one of the most centralized and undemocratic
education systems in the western world. This increased governmental control
over education had a significant impact on the aims, purposes and values of
primary education. England introduced its first
National Curriculum in 1988, the major aims and goals of which were raising
standards and employability. It focused clearly on raising pupils’ academic
achievement in literacy, numeracy and science. It also emphasized the role of
education in preparing the next generation for a flexible job market, whilst
acknowledging education’s role in ensuring the spiritual, moral, cultural,
mental and physical development of children and of society and to prepare such
pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life.[5]
In 1990s
Neo-conservatism indicated a return to a traditional point of view, in contrast
to the more liberal or radical schools of thought of the 1960s. It advocated
the preservation of the best in society and opposed radical changes. In
England, the new curriculum, published in 1999 by Department for Education
and Employment (DfEE) and Qualifications and Curriculum Authority
(QCA 1999a), included, for the first time, an explicit statement of aims,
values and purposes. These were dominated by the Government’s desire to raise
pupil performance in literacy, numeracy and science, but also reflected the aim
of promoting pupils’ spiritual, moral, social, cultural, and physical growth,
and preparing pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of
civic life. In addition, an explicit statement of values linked to the National
Curriculum Handbook (DfEE & QCA 1999b) focused on the self, relationships,
society and the environment.[6]
At the turn of
the 21st century, England developed a new curriculum for primary education
which incorporated a clearly defined statement of aims, values and purposes for
education. These embraced personalized learning, socio-economic and vocational
philosophies. The focus on
raising standards, citizenship education and multiculturalism continued. There
has also been increased emphasis on pupil enjoyment and participation, pupil
safety, healthy eating and lifestyles, and sustainable development. Advocacy of
these aims have been reflected in many document published in the previous
decade like Excellence and Enjoyment: a Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES
2003) (often known as ‘The Primary National Strategy’, or PNS), Every Child
Matters (HM Treasury 2003), Five Year Strategy for Children and Learners
(HM Government 2004b) and Children Act 2004 (England and Wales,
Statutes 2004).[7]
Germany can be cited as another example for demonstrating the fact
that aims, curriculum and other dimensions of education in a particular
country in a certain period, are determined by the philosophy of life
predominant in that country in that particular era. During the period from 1933
to 1945, when its government was controlled by Adolf Hitler
(1889-1945) and his National
Socialist German Workers' Party,
commonly known as the Nazi Party, Germany designed a completely state
controlled education system. Since under Hitler's rule, Germany
was transformed into a totalitarian state where nearly all aspects of life were controlled by the
state, education served to indoctrinate students with the National Socialist
world view. Schools played an important role in spreading Nazi ideas to German
youth. Education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness
for military service. Nazi scholars and educators glorified Nordic and other
“Aryan” races, while denigrating Jews and other so-called inferior peoples as
parasitic “bastard races” incapable of creating culture or civilization.
Instruction aimed to produce race-conscious, obedient, self-sacrificing Germans
who would be willing to die for Führer and Fatherland. Devotion to Adolf Hitler
was a key component of Hitler Youth training. Some books were removed from
the classroom through government censors. German educators introduced new
textbooks that taught students love for Hitler, obedience to state authority,
militarism, racism, and anti-Semitism. Career and educational opportunities for
women were curtailed.[8] But
in today’s Germany, a democratic republic, the aims, purposes and values of
education is guided by child-centred philosophies. Today’s aims focus on
raising standards of achievement, and on preparing children for life in a
multicultural society and in an ever-changing economic and work environment in
which they will require a wide range of skills. The emphasis is on developing
pupils’ social skills; and encouraging critical and independent thinking.[9]
Yet another example is of Russia (old USSR or the Soviet Union).
Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924), leader of the Russian communist revolution (1917)
viewed the school as the most powerful means for changing Russian society from
a religious to an antireligious one and for changing the economic structure
from capitalism to communism. Joseph Stalin (1878-1953), the de facto leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until
his death in 1953) and Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971), the first Secretary of
the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and Chairman of the Council of Ministers from
1958 to 1964, embraced the same view regarding the school and education.
Therefore, in their times the primary purpose of education in general in Russia
was to prepare the young for conscious participation in world revolution, class
struggle, and active roles in local and national government.[10]
But in the contemporary Russia, called the Russian Federation, government’s
educational policy is guided by the democratic and humanistic principles.
It aims at strengthening and developing democracy, consolidating national
identity, and facilitating the transition towards a market economy. The most
important goal of educational reform being brought in the new socio-economic
and political context is to create basic conditions for transition from a
unified, standardized and uniform education system to a differentiated,
diversified and open one. In line with the humanistic principles priority is
given to the human values, human life and health, free development of personality,
civic education, hard work, respect for human rights and freedom, love for the
homeland, environment and the family.[11]
In India too, the aims of education have been changing from ancient
to the modern period according to the dominant philosophy of the time. In
ancient India religion was the dominating force in every sphere of life,
personal and social, therefore system of education was also wedded to it. Aims,
curriculum and other dimensions of education emanated from the Vedas. The
ultimate goal of education in the Vedic System was Chitta-Vritti-Nirodh and the
realization of Truth, Atman and Brahman. It was more concerned with the subject
than the object, the inner world than the outer world. The education of mind
rather than the mere brain or the outer physical sense was the concern of
ancient educators. They wanted to put an ignorant person on intellectual,
progressive and moral path and make his life worthwhile, purposeful and
relevant. With the little change here and there the aims continued till the
medieval period.[12]
Education in
medieval India experienced a new perspective due to the establishment of
permanent Muslim empire. Education in this period was guided by the Islamic
tradition and culture. Maktabs and Madrasas were the institutions of learning
those days. Propagation of religious knowledge; major laws of Islam and Islamic
Shariah; Islamic values, and social norms were the major aims of education.
Beside the transmission of knowledge, the aim of this system was to create such
ability in the scholar so that he is able to acquire perfection in any branch
of learning through self-study and personal efforts. Thus nurturing and
developing the innate capabilities of acquiring knowledge was the prime concern
in individual perspective. Developing love for Muslim culture and religion, and making
individuals religious minded, enabling them for Islamic life and preparing them
for the next world were other aims in individual concern. Besides, Muslim
education also aimed at preparing the individual for future life. Equipping the
students for a vocation and, training and educating them to become eligible for
the civil services as well as performing duties as judge were other aims in
this concern.[13]
System of education again got a new outlook in modern India with
the establishment of British Raj. In 1835, Lord Macaulay introduced modern
system of education in India. Implementation of the recommendations of Wood’s
dispatch of 1854, known as Magna Carta of Indian education, laid the foundation
of modern system of education that changed the scenario. The major goal of
it was to produce Indian Clerks for running local administration, because
British rulers realized that it was too costly and perhaps practically
impossible for them to import enough Englishmen to fulfil the requirement of
large and increasing number of subordinates or lower posts in the
administration. Therefore they planned to educate Indians in such a way that
they “should through western education get Anglicized in terms of both cultural
and intellectual attainments”. Lord Macaulay clearly said that, “we must at
present do our best to form a class, who may be interpreters between us
and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indians in blood and
colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.”[14]
The same system of education continued till 1947 when India became
independent. In independent India several commissions and committees were
appointed which suggested improvements in Indian education. In today’s India,
education is considered as fundamental to the nation’s all-round development,
economic, social and spiritual. It is believed that education develops
sensitiveness, and perception that contribute to national cohesion, a
scientific temper and independence in mind and spirit, thus promoting the goals
of socialism, secularism and democracy enshrined in the constitution. Thus the
general aims of education are to promote national, universal and eternal values
such as India’s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy, secularism
and socialism, equality of sexes, protection of environment, removal of social
barriers, observance of the small family norm and inculcation of the scientific
temper. The value education aims at eliminating the negative values like
obscurantism, religious fanaticism, violence, superstition and fatalism. The vision behind all this is to create
resourceful citizens having global outlook who can contribute to national
growth and can work for international cooperation and world peace.[15]
This is a brief survey of the aims of education in historical
perspective which clearly demonstrates the fact that there exists an
intimate relationship between philosophy and education. Aims, curriculum and
other dimensions of education in a particular country in a certain period, are
determined by the philosophy of life predominant in that country in that
particular era. This relationship between philosophy and education can be made
more evident by presenting a brief survey of the metaphysical and axiological viewpoints
of important schools of classical Philosophy and their respective position on
the aims of education.
In Idealism, the ultimate reality is believed to be spiritual
rather than physical; mental rather than material. The universe is viewed as
essentially nonmaterial in its ultimate nature. Matters or things which
surround us, are not ultimately real but simply the manifestation of some more
fundamental spiritual reality, a universal mind, which is all-embracing,
all-knowing, all-rational. Thus, all material things that appear to be real are
reducible to mind or spirit. Man is also a spiritual being; living in a finite
world made up of infinite mind, therefore is endowed with intelligence and free
will, and consequently is responsible for his actions. Values are considered to
be eternal, absolute, unchanging and permanent because they are intrinsic part
of the determined order of nature. Due to these fundamental beliefs, the
purpose of education in Idealism is to contribute to the development of the mind
and of the self of the pupil. In the process of education there must be
emphasis on intellectual activities, moral judgments, aesthetic judgments,
self-realization, individual freedom, individual responsibility, and
self-control in order to achieve this development.[16]
In Realism, the universe is viewed as made of real, substantial,
material entities. In material nature there are natural laws which determine
and regulate the existence of every entity in the world of nature. Natural or
scientific realism also declares that man is a biological organism with a
highly developed nervous system and a naturally social disposition. According
to this philosophy there is no evidence for the existence of anything spiritual
in man. Man has evolved as a material part of this nature; an organism that
must make adequate adjustments in order to survive. As per this standpoint good
is that which adjusts man to the environment and evil is that which alienates
him. Since both human nature and its physical environment are constant, the
values that adjust one to other also will be constant. Though the social
institutions and practices vary substantially, but the basic values which any
society should observe remains unchanged. As a result of these beliefs, the
basic purpose of education in Realism is to enable the child to become a
balanced, tolerant and well-adjusted person in harmony mentally and physically
with his physical and social environment. Task of the educator is to provide
the pupil with essential knowledge and skills he requires to survive in the
natural world and to achieve a secure and happy life.[17]
In Pragmatism too, the universe is viewed as made of real,
substantial, material entities but it is neither regarded as permanent, nor
independent of man. Change is considered as the essence of reality. Man and his
environment are considered to be “co-ordinate” i.e. both are responsible
equally for what is real. So the reality is created by the interaction of the
human being with his surroundings. It is sum total of human experience. What
man cannot experience cannot have reality for him. With the exception of
Jamesean Pragmatism, man is regarded as a natural, active, thinking organism
living in both a social and a biological environment having no obligation of
any supernatural authority and no concern for any life after death. Values are
considered to be relative. They are purely cultural creations and change from
generation to generation, or from society to society. Furthermore, only those
values are regarded as good or valuable in pragmatism which give favourable
result to the society and advance human welfare. According to Pragmatists,
these values should not be imposed by a higher authority instead should be
adopted through democratic process after open and informed discussion. Because
of these beliefs education is regarded as synonymous with the total development
of the individual. The major aim of the school is to teach pupils how to think,
reconstruct and interpret their own experiences in order to make good decisions
so that they could become able to adjust to an ever changing society, to cope
with the problems of life and to steer themselves onto the course for good
life. Self-realization (social self-realization) constitutes the supreme end of
all men which should be achieved through the process of education. Besides, in
order to make the students excellent citizens education must develop an
understanding of the importance of democracy.[18]
A brief survey of the three classical philosophies reveals that how
aims of education change according to the metaphysical and axiological
doctrines. The curriculum, the methods of teaching, and the concept of
discipline also change in different philosophies but to avoid prolongation the
researcher concentrated on the aims of education as all other dimensions are
only the mean to realize them. Now it is crystal clear that education depends
upon philosophy in order to determine its destination, to get logic, rationale,
sequence and system. However another aspect is also very significant that
philosophy depends upon education in order to translate its principles and
ideas into practice. Education is the practical and dynamic side while
philosophy is the contemplative and theoretical side. Without the help of
education philosophical ideas to be followed cannot be communicated to the
masses. In fact education is a powerful and practical means for the propagation
of any philosophy. In the words of John Adams it is the active aspect of
philosophical belief, the practical means of realizing the ideals of life.[19]
This is the reason that great philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,
Rousseau, Dewey, Froebel, Tagore and others intervened in the field of
education. They employed education as a means to translate their ideas into
practice for the people to follow and develop themselves.
Conclusions:
On the basis of above discussions it can be concluded that that
both education and philosophy are interdependent. To project this relationship
between education and philosophy James S. Ross wrote that philosophy and
education are “like the sides of a coin; present different views of the same
thing, and that one is implied by the other”[20].
Due to this intimate relationship between education and philosophy a new
discipline emerged which is called Educational Philosophy or the Philosophy of
Education. It is the branch of general or classical philosophy, which answers
educational questions related to aims, curriculum, method of teaching, role of
a teacher, nature and functions of school, concept of discipline, evaluation
etc. by referring to different philosophical systems of the society. So if one
desires to understand and revamp the education system of a society or a nation,
he/she must have to understand perfectly the philosophy of life of that particular
society or nation.
Notes
& References:
[1] . Monroe, Paul A
Brief Course in the History of Education, The Macmillan Company, London
1935, PP. 29-30.
[3] . Taneja, V.R. Foundations of Education: Philosophical &
Sociological Basis, Mohindra Capital Publishers, Chandigarh, 1975, P21.
[4] . Shuayb, Maha and O’Donnell, Sharon Aims and Values in Primary Education:
England and Other countries –Interim Report Primary Review Research Survey
1/2, The University of Cambridge, 2008, P. 2, 6-7.
[5] . Ibid, P. 2-3, 10, See also White,
John The Aims of School
Education, Institute for Public Policy Research, P. 1, http://www.ippr.org/uploadedFiles/research/projects/Education/The%20Aims%20of%20School%20Ed%20FINAL.pdf, retrieved on 16.08.2013.
[6] . Shuayb, Maha and O’Donnell, Sharon, OP. Cit., PP. 3-4, 13-15,
& White, John, OP. Cit. PP. 3-4.
[8] . Indoctrinating Youth, Holocaust Encyclopedia,
Copyright © United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, Dc, http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007820, Retrieved
on 19.08.2013, See also Nazi Education, http://histclo.com/schun/country/ger/era/tr/nazi-ed.html, Retrieved on 19.08.2013.
[10] . Dupuis, Adrian M., Philosophy of Education in
Historical Perspective, Thomson Press (India) Ltd., New Delhi, 1972 P.
210-211.
[11] . UNESCO, World Data on Education, Russian Federation, 7th
Edition 2010/11, (Revised Version September 2011, P. 2, http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Russian_Federation.pdf, retrieved on 19.08.2013. See also Bolotov, Victor et. al., Improving Quality of Education in
Russia through Transforming Quality Assurance Systems, P. 1, http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/bb4e/russiaEn.pdf, retrieved on 19.08.2013.
[12] . Pandey, R.S. Developmental Strategies in Modern Indian Education,
Kanishka Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 2006, PP. 3-4.
[13] . Geelani, Sayyid Manazir Ahsan Hindustan
Mein Musalmanon Ka Nizam-e-Taleem Wa Tarbiyat, Nadwatul Musannifeen, Delhi,
1987, Vol. 1, PP. 371-374, 379 & Maheshwari, V.K. ‘Education During
Medieval Period In India’, http://www.vkmaheshwari.com/WP/?p=512, retrieved on 23.8.2013.
[14] . Sinha, Lata Education in India – ‘Ancient’ and ‘Modern’, http://latasinha.wordpress.com/2010/06/20/ancient-and-modern-education-system-in-india/, retrieved on 19.8.2013.
[15] . UNESCO, World Data on Education, India, 7th Edition
2010/11, Revised Version July 2011, P. 2, http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/India.pdf, retrieved on 19.8.2013.
[16] . Callahan, Joseph F. & Clark,
Leonard H. Foundations of Education –
Planning for Competence, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1977,
PP. 83-84 & Kneller, George F. Foundations
of Education, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York & London, 1963, PP.
75-79.
[17] . Callahan, Joseph F. & Clark,
Leonard H. Op. Cit., PP. 75, 84-85 &
Kneller, George F. Op. Cit., PP. 79-84.
[18] . Callahan, Joseph F. & Clark,
Leonard H. Op. Cit., PP. 78, 86-87 &
Kneller, George F. Op. Cit., PP. 86-91.
[19] . As quoted by Ross, James S. in Ground Work of Educational Theory, George
g. Harrap & Co. Ltd., London, 1942 (reprint 1966), P. 16.
*****
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