By: Dr. Md. Wasay Zafar
Abstract
The philosophy of Socialism stands for any of various beliefs or system aiming at public ownership of the means of production and the establishment of a classless society filled with the high values of equality, social justice, cooperation, progress, individual freedom and happiness. Although the very idea of Socialism finds its root in the philosophy of Greek philosopher Plato but it arose as a powerful socio-political movement in 19th and 20th century A.D., and influenced a greater part of the world specially Britain, France, Germany, Russia, China and India. It took many form during the course of its evolution and finally culminated in the most perfect and acceptable form the Democratic Socialism. Like other sub-systems of society, it also exerted a powerful influence on the system of education to realize its goals. In this article the author discusses its concept, beliefs, and goals, its origin and evolution, its major brands giving emphasis on Democratic Socialism and its implications on education.
Key Words: Socialism, Democratic Socialism, Communism, Marxian Socialism, Fabianism
Introduction:
The word ‘Socialism’ indicates any of various beliefs or systems aiming at public ownership of the means of production and the establishment of a society in which every person is equal.[1] Thus the term is used to refer both to an ideology; a comprehensive set of beliefs or ideas about the nature of human society and its future desirable state and to a system or a state of society based on that ideology.2
As far as the sense of the word is
concerned, from the beginning two main senses of the word emerged. The first
sense was in effect a continuation of liberalism, the emphasis being on reform
of the social system to develop liberal values such as political freedom and
the ending of class privileges. Socialism, in the second sense was
explicitly contrasted with a competitive individualist form of society based on
private property was replaced by one based on social ownership and control i.e.
the establishment of cooperation rather than competition among men.3 One can call the followers of the two
senses of socialism as reformists and
revolutionaries respectively. The resulting controversy between reformists and
revolutionaries has been long and bitter. It was only this controversy which led
to the separation of communism from socialism. In the beginning they were
used more or less interchangeably.4 It was the
split in Russia, however between the revolutionary Bolsheviks and the reformist
Mensheviks that lead to the decisive distinction between the terms communism and socialism, as they are now generally understood; socialist being
those who seek change by peaceful reform and
communist being those dedicated to change by revolution.5
In fact it is very
difficult to give any rigid and specific definition of the term socialism, because after its evolution,
it has undergone modifications in the hands of its numerous proponents,
advocates and adherents. However in the modern sense of the term “Socialism may be defined as a social
system under which the principal means of production and distribution are
socially owned and democratically managed for the common good within the
framework of a democratic political structure”.6
Fundamental Beliefs of Socialism:
Socialism is a body of teaching and practice,
so it must be based upon certain beliefs. As we know the socialists give
primacy to the economic forces in the analysis of social processes. Their
belief is that the property relationship and the mode of production relations,
determine the nature of society;7 and that
most social evils are due to the unequal distribution of material resources;8 and also that these evils can be cured
only by the transference, gradual or immediate, total or partial, of the
ownership of property and of the means of production, exchange and distribution
from private to public control.9
Major Goals of Socialism:
As socialism is a scheme of social organization, it has some goals to
be achieved. Some of the major goals of socialism
are discussed here.
The basic aim of
socialism is the establishment of a
classless society filled with the high values of equality, social justice,
cooperation, progress, individual freedom (political liberty and economic and
social privileges) and happiness.10
The greater
emphasis is upon the establishment of cooperation rather than competition among
men.11 For this it is necessary that there
should be no class controversy in the society. So one of the important goal of socialism is that class contradiction
will be abolished i.e. there will be no ruling and exploiting class. The
socialist society will be constituted of the single class of proletariats. The
state will no longer represent the pattern domination of one class over the
other. It will represent the interest of whole society and will be controlled
by proletariats i.e. with workers control over the means of production and
distribution.12
Since socialists
believe that root cause of evils are excessive unequal distribution of material
resources and that the possession of or desire for private property inevitably
corrupts the individual, obscures his moral and intellectual vision, and makes
him incapable of pursuing truth and social justice. Therefore it is necessary to
abolish the private enterprise economy and replace it by public ownership; a
system of social and state control over production and distribution. Thus
abolition of private property and ownership of process of production and
distribution by society rather than by individual becomes an indispensable
measure to achieve the basic aim of socialism.13
Thus one can
conclude that abolition of private property and its replacement by public
ownership, establishment of a classless society and development of certain
liberal values are the main aims of socialism.
Origin and Evolution of
Socialism:
Although the socialist societies
and socialist states came into existence in the 19th and 20th century
AD but the idea of socialism is very
old and, found in the writings of ancient philosophers and thinkers. Some
scholars believe that the basic principles of socialism were derived from the philosophy of Plato, the teachings
of Hebrew prophet, and some parts of the New Testament (Sermon on the Mount,
for example).14
Plato (429-347
BC) advocates the abolition of private property among the guardians of his ideal
state because in his opinion the possession of, or desire for private property
inevitably corrupts the individual, obscures his moral and intellectual vision,
and makes him incapable of pursuing truth and social justice.15 Similar idea is found in the writings
of many of the ancient and medieval thinkers.
In the 16th
and 17th century A.D. this very idea is found in the Utopia of Sir Thomas More (1516), in
Tommaso Campanell’s City of the Sun (1623)
and Harrington Oceana (1656).16
In the 18th
century A.D. these doctrines at last found explicit formulation in the works of
the Abbey Mably (q.v.) and Morelly (le code de la nature- 1755).17 All these philosophers and thinkers
were of the view that sole source of evil, injustice and misery is the unequal distribution
of property and that the abolition of private property and the substitution for
it of communal ownership of the means of material production and distribution
is an indispensable measure.
Modern socialist ideology
however, is essentially a joint product of the 1789 French Revolution and the
Industrial Revolution in England.18 These
two great historical events, establishing democratic government in France and
the condition for vast future economic expansion in England, engendered a state
of conflict between the
property owners (the Bourgeoisie) and the growing class of industrial workers.
In this conflicting situation the first socialist movement emerged in France
after the revolution and was led by Francois Noel Babeuf, Filippo Michele
Buonarrotti (1761-1837) and Louis Auguste Blanqui; but ended in failure in
1796.19 Though this movement was based on
socialistic ideologies but was not assigned the name as such because the word socialism or socialist was not evolved up to that time.
The word socialist and socialism came into use in Great Britain and France soon after 1825.
The word socialist seems to have been
used first in Great Britain (Cooperative Magazine 1826) to describe the
followers of Robert Owen(1771-1858) and the word socialiste in France (Globe 1832) with reference to the followers
of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint Simon (1760-1825) and Charles
Francois Fourier (1772-1837). In Great Britain the followers of Robert Owen
officially adopted the name socialists
in 1841. The word socialism as the
antithesis to individualism was
popularized by P. Leroux and J. Reynaud in the Encyclopedie Nouvelle and in
their other writings and by 1840 the word was used freely in Europe to describe
the school of Saint Simon, Charles Fourier, Owen and others, who attacked the
existing system of commercial competition and put forward proposal for a new
way of life based on collective control.20
They (forerunners of socialism) were
of the view that the goal of the establishment of an ideal socialist society
can be achieved gradually and peacefully by the founding of small experimental
communities. Mainly for this reason later socialist
writers dubbed them with the label utopians.
In the mid 19th
century, more elaborate socialist theories were developed. The German thinkers
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) came on the scene and
put forward the most sophisticated and influential doctrine of socialism. They
attacked the utopians as futile and
foolish and laid down the principles of a practical socialism based on scientific philosophical method in “The Communist Manifesto” (Feb. 1848) -
the first important document of mature Marxism.
Marxian ideas (his arguments and
methods) prevailed and Marxism became
the theoretical basis for most socialist thought.21
But Marxian socialism made a turn
towards communism which believes in
“the complete discarding of the institutions of private property and the
division of the resultant public income equally and indiscriminately among the
entire population. Thus with Marx and Engels, socialism not only reached a certain completeness and became a mass
movement, it also came to be interpreted in a more restricted sense.
Marxian socialism became rigorously scientific and found its basis in a scientific
analysis of the existing situation as well as of history. It also abandoned all
religious and moral claims and bases of Pre-Marxian
socialism. It not only rejected the principle of cooperation with other
classes, but glorified class struggle as the source of all virtues. Actually Marxists
believed in revolution rather than the reform. They were of the view that the
proletariats had to play the historic role of overthrowing capitalism, of
bringing about a world revolution, and of building a fully emancipated, egalitarian
society.22 Thus according to Ladler, there are
three corner stones of Marxian theory
– materialist or economic interpretation of history, the doctrine of class
struggle, and the theory of value.23
The central thesis
of the economic teachings of Marx and Engels was that the capitalist society is
hopelessly torn by antagonistic forces and these hostile forces will ultimately
destroy the whole social fabric but in such a way that “the communist embryo
preformed in capitalist society will be set free”. But by the turn of the
century, economic developments in most European countries ushered in an era of
prosperity. With the development of the economy all the prophecies of Marx
about crisis went wrong completely. The word revolution never came, therefore
many socialist thinkers among them Eduard Bernstein challenged the fundamental
theses of Marxian Socialism.
Bernstein (1850-1932) differed from Marx on several vital points and inclined
towards a practical approach. He held the interest of society above those of a
class. He believed in reform rather than in revolution, in a peaceful rather
than violent solution of the problems and he had a favourable attitude towards
the state. Thus a new school of thought emerged which is termed as Revisionism.24 They are also named as ‘Social Democrats’.
At the same time
i.e. during the period of prosperity (in 1884) the Fabian society was founded in England, and its able leaders,
including George Bernard Shaw, Beatrice Webb and Sidney Webb did much to spread
the socialist doctrine; out of which it was to grow the Labour party , the
organ of British Socialism. Thus during the period of prosperity, when the time
of Marx had gone wrong, Social Democrats
and Fabians came into power in
England , Germany and several other countries of Europe .The Fabian view was greatly influenced by Comte,
Darwin and Spencer. The Fabian method was of evolution, and peaceful reform;
step by step. The Fabians as also the
Social Democrats, believed in the
“inevitability of gradualness”.25
In the same period
a counter offensive of Social Democrats
and Fabians two other important
socialist thought emerged; they are known as Syndicalism and Guild
Socialism. The main propounders of Syndicalism
were George Sorel (1847-1922), Hubert Lagardelle and Gustav Harve (1871-1922).
Syndicalists were violently
anti-state and also opposed to political parties. They were against reform and
evolution. It was the Syndicalists
who first conceived the idea of a general strike which paralyses the country
completely. Guild Socialists were
also anti-state, they thought that society or at least the economy should be
organized on the basis of ‘guilds’. The guilds were self regulating autonomous
bodies of producers and merchants. The main propounders of this brand of
socialism were Samuel George, Hobson, Alfred Richard Orage and others.26
In the South Asian
countries, socialist tendencies developed after world war IInd, produced by the
impact of both USSR and China.27
After a brief survey of the development
of socialist thought, varieties of socialism may be classified according to
their ideal of justice, their motivation, their attitude towards the state, and
their method of attaining their ideals. Some important schools of socialist
thought are enlisted in the table given below with their leading exponents:
Brands of Socialism
|
Leading Exponents
|
Utopian Socialism
|
Francois Fourier, Claude Saint Simon, Robert Owen, Horace Greeley,
Charles A. Dana and many others in Europe and United States of America.
|
| Christian Socialism | F. D. Maurice and Charles Kingsley |
| Marxism/ Scientific Socialism | Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. |
| Revisionism | Eduard Bernstein |
| Fabianism |
George Bernard Shaw, Beatrice Webb, Sidney Webb, Graham Wallas, George
Douglas Howard Cole, Harold J. Laski and others.
|
Syndicalism
|
George Sorel, Hubert Lagardelle and Gustav Harve.
|
Guild Socialism
|
Samuel George, Hobson, Alfred Richard Orage and others
|
Democratic Socialism
|
Socialist International and thinkers like M.K. Gandhi, J. L.
Nehru, Jayaprakash Narayan and G.L Mehta.
|
Thus there have been and
are now various shades and hues in the spectrum of socialism but for all practical purposes it is divided into two
major brands; Totalitarian Communism
and Democratic Socialism.
Totalitarian
Communism is the school of communism
led by prominent leaders like Nicolas Lenin (1870-1924) and Stalin (1879-1953).
They were of the view that only the conscious leaders, the elite (the Communist
Party) can lead the socialist movement and can have absolute control over all
citizens; a concept of communist dictatorship.
On the other hand
there were many socialists who believed that socialism can be achieved only through peaceful and parliamentary
means. They were thinking on the pattern of Social
Democrats and Fabians. Democratic Socialism in the modern form,
which is now practiced in the leading democratic countries of the world – India
being one of them. As we are concerned with the Democratic Socialism, it has been discussed in details here.
Historical Perspective of
Democratic Socialism:
In the late 19th
century (by the 1870s) socialism was
flowing strong under the guidelines of Socialist
International.28 But
after the failure of Marxism in the
late 19th century many socialist leaders came on the international
scene to revise Marxism. In erstwhile
Russia, Bolsheviks seized power in 1917 and suppressed all democratic and
socialist forces to build a one party communist dictatorship and Stalin
Constitution of 1936 unleashed a reign of terror. To reduce the effect of
dictatorship Social Democrats came on
scene and the Socialist International
pronounced that socialism is
impossible without democracy and that it is a misnomer to call an economic
order, a socialist society if it functions in a totalitarian or dictatorial
state.29 Thus Democratic Socialism came historically as a reaction against the
communist distortion of Socialism.
Principles and Aims of
Democratic Socialism:
Democratic Socialism is a higher form of
democracy. It claims political democracy with social contents (by adding
economic and social democracy to the political). It rejects every form of
imperialism. Here any theory or principle is accepted only after a free and
frank discussion. Since Democratic
Socialism was an international movement under the patronage of Socialist International, it includes the
thoughts and ideas of a number of and a variety of socialist thinkers of the
world from the 19th century onward but unfortunately, there has not
yet emerged a complete and clear-cut picture of or programme of Democratic Socialism. The most
authoritative enunciation of the aims and tasks of Democratic Socialism is the Frankfurt
Declaration of the Socialist
International, which met at Frankfurt- Germany from 30th June to
03rd July 1951. The principles proclaimed by the Frankfurt Declaration have been summed
up in the following ten points,30 which
provide the theoretical basis of Democratic
Socialism.
1.
Socialism is an international movement which does not
demand a rigid uniformity of approach. All socialist movements basically strive
for the same goal- a system of social justice, better living, freedom and world
peace.
2.
Without
freedom there can be no socialism. Socialism can be achieved only through
democracy and democracy can be fully realized only through socialism.
3.
Socialism seeks to replace
capitalism by a system in which
public interest takes precedence over the interest of private profit. The
immediate economic aims of socialist policy are full employment, higher
education, a rising standard of life, social security and a fair distribution
of income and property.
4.
Public
ownership takes various forms. It is not an end in itself but a means of
controlling the basic industries and services on which the economic life and
welfare of the community depend, a means of nationalizing inefficient
industries and preventing private monopolies and curtails from exploiting the
public.
5.
Trade
unions and organizations of producers and consumers are necessary elements in a
democratic society.
6.
Socialist
planning does not mean that all economic decision rest with the central
government. Economic power should be decentralized as far as compatible with
the aims of planning.
7.
Socialists
strive to abolish all forms and types of legal, economic, and political
discrimination.
8.
Socialists
accept the individual rights to be rewarded according to his efforts but they
believe in using incentives such as “pride in work well done” and a sense of
solidarity and team spirit.
9.
Democratic Socialism
rejects every form of imperialism. It fights the oppression and exploitation of
all people.
10.
The
struggle for the preservation of peace is inseparably bound up with the
struggle for freedom.
From the above 10
points of Frankfurt Declaration we
can conclude that Democratic Socialism
aims at achieving equality, social justice, peace and prosperity for all
peoples, not just within a country, but in the wider world around.
Democratic Socialism in
India:
The preamble of Indian
constitution declares India a “Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic”
and secures to all citizens Justice;
social, economic and political, Liberty
of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship, Equality of status and opportunity and Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual.
Though our present
concept of Democratic Socialism, by
common consent owes most to Gandhi and Nehru, the history of socialist thinking
in India goes much farther back. Dada Bhai Naoroji had attended the 6th
congress of the Socialist International
at Amsterdam in 1905; Lala Lajpat Rai was a member of the independent Labour Party
when in Britain and Mrs. Annie Besant was among the founding parents of Fabian Socialism.31 There time however was not suitable for
the communication of the vision of socialism
to the Indian people. The need of the time was to make people aware of the
exploitation being done by English government. Once the struggle for
independence was fully launched, Nehru and Gandhi were in a better position to
communicate to the people the vision of the future socialist society. Jayaprakash
Narayan and G.L Mehta were other figures of the Indian socialist movement. Here
the contributions of Gandhi and Nehru to Socialism
have been discussed in some details.
Contributions of Gandhi to
Socialism:
Gandhiji never claimed himself
a socialist, nor did he ever preached socialism
as such, but the ideas that he put before the nation on various subjects
through his writings and speeches, all suggest a way of life and a social order
which could be justly called socialist
in the noblest meaning of the term. The key concepts of Gandhiji’s socialism are enshrined in his doctrines
of;
1.
Purity of
means and ends.
2.
Non-Violence,
non-cooperation or passive resistance.
3.
Trusteeship.
He said that “means
and ends are convertible terms in my philosophy of life”.32 “I do not believe in short violent cuts
to success………..I am uncompromising opponent of violent methods even to serve
the noblest of causes”33 i.e. Gandhiji
did not allow the use of unworthy means to achieve even the noblest end. He
said: “The Socialism is a pure
crystal; it therefore requires crystal like means to achieve it. Impure means
result in an impure end”.34
Gandhiji opposed
the Marxist idea of class struggle giving the principles of non-violence. He
said: “The idea of class war does not appeal to me. In India a class war is not
only not inevitable but it is avoidable if we have understood the message of
non-violence”.35 His proposal was of
achieving a just and egalitarian society by a peaceful and parliamentary means.
He suggested the
remedy of trusteeship to cure the society of the ailments of inequality. He
wanted the wealthy persons to act as trustees of the extra wealth possessed by
them. This superfluous wealth had to be used for the society by putting it all
to the productive purposes, which alone could alleviate the suffering of the
starving and the idle, jobless people.
Gandhiji was
convinced that real socialism could
be brought about only by those who could practice it in their own lives and not
merely by giving “addresses” and “forming parties”. In fact the socialist
movement in India drew a lot of inspiration after the 1930s from the apparently
utopian but pragmatic views of Gandhiji.
Contributions of Nehru to
Socialism:
Nehru is looked upon as the
most ardent believer in “Socialism
with an Indian basis”. He classed himself as a democratic socialist. In his
younger years, he was very much under the influence of Marxian Socialism. In 1936, in his presidential address at Lucknow,
he used the word socialism not in a
vague humanitarian way buy in a very scientific economic sense. By socialism he meant;
1.
the ending
of private property.
2.
the
replacement of property system by the higher ideals of co-operative services,
and
3.
the
building of a new civilization radically different from the capitalist order.36
But after becoming
Prime Minister, his concept underwent a noticeable change perhaps on coming to
grips with the situation in the country or due to the disillusionment from the
Russian brand of socialism (communism)
under Stalin. He changed views found expression in many of his addresses and
speeches during his Prime-ministership. He said in 1949:
“It’s not a
question of theory, of Communism, Socialism
or Capitalism. It is a question of
hard facts ……. I am not enamoured of these isms…….My approach is, and I should
like to say the country’s approach should be rather a pragmatic approach. Our
problem today is to raise the standard of masses”.
By this pragmatic approach he meant;
1.
that
production must be raised before thinking of equitable distribution.
2.
that
nationalization or state ownership was essential in the case of key industries and
large products.
3.
that it
was more expedient for the state to concentrate on some specific vital and new
industries rather than go about nationalizing the existing one.
4.
that with
the increased production there must follow equitable distribution and
opportunity for growth to every body.
5.
that the
result would be a mixed economy , and
6.
that
changes would be brought about through parliamentary means.
This briefly was
Nehru’s Democratic Socialism accepted
as the national goal in Avadi Congress in January 1955.37
After a brief
survey of his thought we can say that Nehru was basically a humanist, his socialism was something to be accepted by and not thrust on the people.
He was convinced that the socialism
would come without class war and dictatorship. Democracy is the only means to
achieve it and outside democracy, Socialism
itself would be debased and distorted. This faith in a way provided the
foundation stone of Democratic Socialism
in India.
However the goal of socialism to be achieved in a
developing poor country like India is very difficult. It can not be the same as
in a developed, affluent society. In a developed society one can give immediate
attention to equitable distribution and social justice but in a poor country
the basic task is to remove poverty. This requires a complete economic social
and cultural transformation under democracy with cooperation of its entire
people. This is what makes the task in this country really Herculean (needing
or using very great strength or determination).
Education plays an important
role in building a desired sociopolitical order. It fulfils the needs of the
society and propagates such ideas which promote social change in all fields of
life. In fact it is a social process by means of which society can mould
children according to its needs and approved patterns of behaviour. Therefore
if any political or social ideals have to be realized, the vast potential of
education both formal and informal, inside or outside the school should be
fully utilized and the society should organize its educational activities
according to its needs and aspirations. Since socialism is also an ideal to be achieved, therefore all democratic
socialistic societies also have a powerful impact or say control on their
educational system. Here the researcher has made an attempt to discuss the main
aspects of education in democratic socialistic societies.
(a) Aims of Education: All the democratic
socialist states like USA, UK, and India have accepted the social aim of education in its wider sense. The social aim in its wider sense grants
liberty to the individual to enjoy certain rights to develop his personality to
the fullest extent but at the same time expect from the individual to serve the
state to the best of his ability and capacity. Thus we can say that the
development of social attitude or social sense in children is the main aim of
education in democratic socialist countries. Other aims can be enlisted as
under:
·
Development
of harmonious personality.
·
Development
of knowledge in the academic areas such as Mathematics, Sciences, History,
Foreign Languages etc not for the sake of knowledge but for the service of the
state.
·
Development
of vocational efficiency, especially in Scientific Technology and in
Agriculture and Technical trades to achieve a state of economic efficiency.
·
Development
of democratic values like responsibility, respect, for the individual,
tolerance sense of service and sacrifice, individual and social progress etc.
·
Development
of human qualities as love, sympathy, fellow feeling, cooperation etc.
·
Development
of national and international feeling.
·
Respect of
public property.
·
Development
of leadership qualities.
·
Development
of habits of industriousness and persistence in learning.
·
Development
of initiative and courage.
(b) Curriculum: Main features of the
curriculum in socialist democracy
are as under;
·
Diversified: curriculum is
diversified to suit the needs of all children with basic difference of interest
and aptitude. It includes all subjects like Mathematics, the Sciences,
Scientific & Technological Education, Geography, Biology, Astronomy, Languages
& Literature, Social Sciences including ‘Political Economy’ and ‘Political
Education’, Humanities, Art, Aesthetics etc. A portion of it is made compulsory
in the form of Core Curriculum and
diversified subjects are made optional for the children to choose according to
the interest and aptitude.
·
Flexible: curriculum is flexible.
It may be changed according to the need of the time, place and local
requirements.
·
Activity Centered:
curriculum is activity centered. It is based on the principle of learning by
doing. Students are allowed to search for truth through their own experiences
and experiments. This is real learning which develops confidence, foresight and
farsightedness- the three important ingredients of wisdom.
(c) Methods of Teaching: Ideals
of Democratic Socialism exert a powerful influence upon the methods of
teaching also. As the researcher has mentioned earlier that curriculum is activity
centered, therefore all methods of teaching used in democratic society are
child centered. Important methods are Montessori Method, Dalton Plan, Heuristic
Method, Laboratory Method, Laboratory Plan, Experimental Methods and Project
Method etc. these Methods of teaching make children an investigator, researcher
and speakers of truth. How far these methods are in practice in the Indian situation
is a matter of dispute but in other socialist democracies (like USA, UK etc.)
these methods are in practice to a great extent.
(d) Place
of Teacher: Role of teacher in this system is that of a friend,
philosopher and guide. Teacher tries to solicit maximum cooperation from the
guardian, parents and other social agencies for the greater possible development
of children as dynamic and socially oriented citizens of the future.
(e) Concept of Discipline: Socialist democratic discipline does not believe in repression or
compulsion. It advocates self-discipline.
Students are given full opportunity to
participate in school administration, discuss problems and decide them freely.
Thus they feel their integral and intimate relationship with the school and
feel internal kinship with its progress and development. Thus a sense of self-discipline is fostered.
(f)
Other Important Characteristics of Socialist Democratic Education:
·
Equality
of educational opportunity.
·
Free
education up to a certain level.
·
Dignity of
labour, hard work, and respect for public property are inculcated through
education.
·
Patriotism,
cooperation and sharing are instilled through education.
·
Discipline,
hard work and persistence are regarded as virtues to be learnt in class and in
school.
·
Elementary
and Adult education are available free to all.
Conclusion:
After a detailed
discussion, one can reach on conclusion that socialism is essentially a movement for the promotion of well-being
and happiness of individual men and women. It exerts a powerful influence on
the system of education to achieve its ultimate goal. Education too has vast
potentiality to bring about social change but it is not an independent
variable. It works in the society, not on the society. Therefore for
realization of an ideal democratic socialist society, the various sub-social
systems (like political and economic) must work in cooperation and with clarity
of purpose.
References:
4. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2nd Ed., New York: Columbia
University Press, 1956, P. 1844.
5. The Macmillan Encyclopedia, 1981, P. 1131.
6. Encyclopedia Americana, International Edition, New York: Americana
Corporation, 1966, Vol. 25, P.
195.
7. Jha, S.N. Society, State and Government, New Delhi:
NCERT, 1989 Ed. Reprinted 1990, P. 81.
8. Chambers Encyclopedia,
Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967, Vol. 12, P. 640.
9. Ibid
10. Lexicon Universal Encyclopedia, Vol. 18, P. 19.
11. The Macmillan Encyclopedia, 1981, P. 1130.
12. Jha, S.N. Op. Cit., P. 81.
13. * Ibid
* Chambers Encyclopedia, Vol. 12, P. 640.
14. Lexicon Universal Encyclopedia, Vol. 18, P. 19.
15. Chambers Encyclopedia, Vol. 12, P. 640.
16. Ibid
17. Ibid, Vol. 12, P. 641.
18. Lexicon Universal Encyclopedia, Vol. 18, P. 19.
19. Ibid
20. Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. 1970, Vol.
20, P. 746.
21. * Lexicon Universal Encyclopedia, Vol. 18, P. 19.
* The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2nd Ed., 1956, P. 1844.
* The Macmillan Encyclopedia, 1981, P. 1130-31.
22. Saxena, Dr. Shakuntla. Sociological Perspective in Indian
Education, New Delhi: Asha Janak
Publication, 1975, P. 43.
23. Laidler, H.W. History of Socialism, New York: Thomas T.Crowell
Company, Apollo Ed., 1968, P.160
24. * Saxena, Dr. Shakuntla., Op.Cit., P.44
* Mehta, Ashok. Democratic Socialism, 4th Ed., Bombay:
Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan, 1963, P. 27-29.
25. * The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2nd Ed., 1956, P. 1844.
* The Macmillan Encyclopedia, 1981, P. 1130-31.
* Mehta, Ashok. Op.Cit., P. 29-31.
26. Mehta, Ashok. Op.Cit., P.
33-35.
27. Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol.
20, P. 756A.
28. The Columbia Encyclopedia,
2nd Ed., 1956, P. 1844.
29. Encyclopedia Americana, Vol.
25, P.195.
30. Laidler, H.W. Op.Cit.,
P.865.
31. Saxena, Dr. Shakuntla.,
Op.Cit, P.47.
32. Bose, N.K. Selections from Gandhi, Ahmadabad: Navjivan
Publishing House, 1948, P.13.
33. Prabhu, R.K. & Rao,
U.R., The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi, London: Oxford University Press, 1945,
P. 126
34. Pyarelal. Mahatma
Gandhi-the Last Phase, Ahmadabad: Navjivan Publishing House, 1958, Vol.2, P.13.
35. Bose, N.K. Op.Cit., P.32.
36. Saxena, Dr. Shakuntla.,
Op.Cit. P. 52.
37. Ibid, P. 53.
38. * Saxena, Dr. Shakuntla.,
Op.Cit. P. 56-59.
* Chandra, S.S. & Sharma, R. K. Principles of Education, , New
Delhi: Atlantic Publishers &
Distributors 1996, P. 151-54.
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